Nano Padlocks - On the Horizon

As more scientists enter the molecular engineering field, the reality of nanotechnology in our day to day lives gets closer. A recent example is the development of a new kind of lock. A keypad lock. Made from one molecule.

Organic chemist Abraham Shanzer, with his team at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, described his new security device in the Dec. 19, 2006 Journal of the American Chemical Society.

This type of lock could have any number of applications. It could be used, perhaps with a pool of similar molecules, to safeguard critical information. It could also be used in the body to detect miniscule chemical changes, giving it medical applications as well.

The lock is similar in concept to an ATM keypad - except that unlocking it is much more complex. Using a password made of a specific sequence of chemicals and light, it could be virtually unhackable.

Shanzer and his colleagues are already working on more complex sequences of chemicals and longer series' of light pulses to use as passwords.

Basically, what Shanzer did was take a virus molecule called a FLIP (Flice inhibitory protein), which is acidic in nature, and link it to an alkaline compound and an ultraviolet light-sensitive compound. These three elements - the FLIP, the compound, and the light - are essentially the buttons that make up the keypad. The lock will not open unless each button is exposed to its own complex password. Once the first password has been entered, the other two must be entered within minutes of each other to keep the keypad from re-setting.

According to John Burch, head writer for Nanofuture2030, nanotechnology will soon affect our lives in every way - from security and medicine to product production, food distribution, and manufacturing.

Molecular engineering is an exciting field, and it's being researched by scientists around the globe, including teams at the University of Oregon, Penn State, and Rice University.

Benefits of Using Telemetry GSM

In today's society the use of radio transmissions and Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology in order to send data transmissions is becoming more common. The major applications where Telemetry GSM is used for such work include:


* monitoring electrical power stations,


* gathering of meteorological data
* carrying out remote meter readings as well as for the management of logistics


* tracking of all types of endangered land and marine species


* monitoring of both manned and unmanned space flights.

However, currently, Telemetry GSM is also used for monitoring the electrophysiological state of patients who may be at risk from abnormal heart activity. Often these patients are fitted with a customized device which has no other controls other than an on/off button. This piece of equipment or device will have a wireless receiver (for providing the long distance telemetry) and a GSM module. This device can then relay encrypted short messages to the central database using standard SMS (short messaging system) protocol. This is then decrypted and can be passed on to the health care professional caring for that particular patient. What is so great about this particular piece of equipment is that it provides the patient with the freedom of movement while in the hospital and keeps them from the possibility of getting stiff or suffering from bed sores if they had to stay in bed all day.

Certainly GSM modules are a vital piece of equipment in the telemetry world as they are an excellent way to implement network communications to remote locations. In fact, the list of potential applications for Telemetry GSM is practically endless. Today, Telemetry GSM modules are also used for rail switching and this system reports the position of the rail switching point directly to the traffic control center.

The great thing about Telemetry GSM lies in the fact that they do not need to have any set up requirements and they do not congest the network with fixed connections. What in fact happens is the GSM modules will operate in stand by mode and only go active when they need to send small amounts of data to the monitoring system at set regular intervals or as and when they are required. Often these Telemetry GSM modules are relatively inexpensive and easy to install as well as being very reliable.

Lean Manufacturing Management

Lean manufacturing management technique was also borrowed by US automobile manufacturers from their Japanese competitors. Lean manufacturing is characterized by emphasis being placed on product quality in the first place. The approach became integrated in various stages of the production process and also relies on suppliers and subcontract to produce the greatest proportion of value added.

Finally, speed of processing and delivery are emphasized. At the same time, central feature of lean manufacturing remains on the supplier structure that significantly reduces the number of companies a manufacturer deals with directly. Consequently, lean manufacturing is characterized by close relationships as well as frequent interactions with suppliers. Thus, in 1970th there was a process of reorganization of the supply chain in United States. In Japan auto assembly and production parts are located in several core industrial regions such Tokyo and Yokohama. At the same time, concentration of suppliers in United States is not as intensive as in Japan.

Thus, implementation of the new management technique is closely related to size of the country. In United States, there are two types of suppliers – captive and independent. When lean manufacturing management was implemented in the United States by the Big Three automobile manufacturing companies, captive suppliers were concentrated in the Midwest. Even today, as a consequence of implementation of the new technique, geographical representation of suppliers remains similar to the one that was introduced in 1970th. While Ford historically operated with a centralized model of production in Detroit and Dearborn, now company's parts are clustered in Michigan and Ohio.

On the other hand, General Motors used to have multiple centres in Michigan, but soon after implementation of the new management technique, the company moved the operation process to the Midwest by purchasing independent supplier companies. Thus, before World War II, captive suppliers of automobile manufacturers have been largely clustered in the Great Lakes Region. However, after the new strategy was implemented, unskilled production process was moved to the south.

Heat Gun Accessories - What You Should Use And What You Should Not

Heat gun- this useful instrument comes with a large number of accessories hence making your tasks easier. Once you learn about the various functions of a heat gun which range from embossing to plumbing, you might find yourself handicapped without this wonderful tool. Knowledge on how to use various accessories that are compatible with your heat gun will definitely benefit you as you will be able to use it to its fullest capability. Other than the accessories that come along with the heat gun there are more accessories available in the market.

One of the most used accessories would be the spreader nozzle which enables the heat gun to uniformly distribute the hot air over a wider area. Instead of the regular mouth of the heat gun, they help to reduce the air flow through a narrower slit. The spreader nozzles direct the hot air in a more accurate and focused manner to heat a particular area of the surface and keeps the force of air applied from being mild and hence ineffective. When the air needs to affect a larger area, spreader nozzles are what you need especially in jobs like drying paint. The drying process is enhanced with the nozzles as they keep the hot air focused on the surface.

Though reducer nozzles are very much like spreader nozzles they differ in only one aspect, that is the reducer nozzle focuses the hot air over a smaller area. Various sizes are available depending on your needs and job requirements. Vinyl repair, welding plastics, soldering, PVC welding and many more jobs require the reducer nozzle. They are specifically designed for tasks that require fine focusing of hot air over a small area.

Nozzles of various kinds have been designed specially for many specific tasks which cannot otherwise be performed by the heat gun alone. You must read the manual regarding availability of different nozzles for your heat gun and their recommended functions. The uses of a heat gun can be increased further with the addition of accessories.

Heart - The Body's Power plant

The human heart is an organ that is comprised of muscles. Simply defined, the heart is a pump which shuttles nutrient and hormone filled blood to all portions of the body.

An average of 72 times each minute the heart pumps approximately 2-4 tablespoons of fresh blood into our bodies.

Did you know that in the course of 70 years of life each human heart would pump 250,000 gallons of blood? [1]

Three main arteries of the body (Right Coronary Artery, Left Coronary Artery and Anterior Intraventricular Artery) act as the Interstate moving mass quantities of blood to the other arteries, veins and capillaries.

The heart actually acts as your body's main recycling center too. WorldInvisible.com indicates, "Used blood, that is blood that has already been to the cells and has given up its nutrients to them, is drawn from the body by the right half of the heart, and then sent to the lungs to be reoxygenated. Blood that has been reoxygenated by the lungs is drawn into the left side of the heart and then pumped into the blood stream. It is the atria that draw the blood from the lungs and body, and the ventricles that pump it to the lungs and body."

Blood that has already delivered hormonal messengers, oxygen and nutrients to all parts of your body is taken back through the heart, infused with a fresh supply of oxygen in the lungs and then rechanneled back through the bloodstream to keep the body healthy.

The American Heart Association reports, "The heart has four chambers. The upper two are the right and left atria — the lower two, the right and left ventricles. The heart also has four valves that open and close to let blood flow in only one direction when the heart contracts (beats)." [2]

The body is infused with chemical messengers form the Endocrine system, which can only be transported through the bloodstream. The body needs nutrients and oxygen that are supplied by the heart.

Heart disease and other risk factors diminish the capacity of this organ to perform its job effectively. Medical research has greatly aided in the advance of heart health as well as assisting in the long-term function of this vital organ.

The human body is dependent on an organ about the size of a fist to continuously supply what is needed for continued health, longevity of life and even consciousness. Some refer to this organ as 'simple', yet the heart has proven one of the most dependable and hardest working organs in our bodies. The variety of tasks the heart performs is complex, yet efficient.

If this was a discussion about fine automobiles and we were to admire the precision workings of the motor we might say an engineer designed the motor brilliantly. However in the context of evolutionary thought the term designed should never be used to describe the human body or any of its inner workings. Does that seem a bit peculiar?

Perhaps the human heart looks designed because it is designed.

[1] http://www.worldinvisible.com/apologet/humbody/heart.htm

[2] http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=34

Business Bright Chances in Pakistan - A Review (Part III)

Part III

6: Renewable Energy sources – Solar Energy

Just one square cm of the Sun's surface burns with the brightness of 232,500 candles.

- "A half an hour of the Sun's Energy which reaches the Earth's surface in a full sunny day can meet the whole world's energy demands for almost a year"

The renewable energy resources are the best alternative to the available power generations at the moment in Pakistan! In preference to various reasons and compared with other renewable sources of Energy, the solar power can be a major part of the contributing feature in the power generation. Most of the day time in summer is about 13 – 16 hours and in winter 8 – 10 hours. One can avail this natural facility by situating a solar plant into the industry or home purposes. One can compare like one standard hour of sun light in summer can provide a good amount of electricity with a 1 square meter of a solar generator array. The comparison of the budget in the construction of a plant and usage of electricity from other resources would with roughly estimates to be at least 1/4th of the hydro power generated by limited amount of the water.

Thinking ahead, one can offer a good opportunity to setup the industry in collaboration with the state of the art technology. Alternatively the villages which are far off to the main power supplies and where the access to the power lines is a bit complicated, this method to generate light is/can be a major alternative. Currently Pakistani government is focusing on this theme of the projects, but there is still a big room for the sector of the business. Comparing advantages and disadvantages one can say, the renewable energy sources would be a great point-of-care for in near future because it's cheap, easy to install and pollution free or environmental friendly way to fulfil human needs. Solar technology can be practically used in cooking as well…

For a standard comparison between various photovoltaic modules, the worldwide test conditions have been defined: the current and voltage measurement and the output performance is considered under specific conditions of irradiance, temperature, and area (1000W/m2, 25 °C). Generally one can get about 50W of power from a standard panel.

7: Public Transport Agencies

Since last decade the government has been trying to establish good relations with international companies. Namely Daewoo and Volvo participated into providing a good quality transport facilities. Many other companies for the construction and transport purposes should open new dimensions to the business. The private investment in public transportation should be patronized by government. Working in association with National Highway Authority – NHA, Advertising companies and can bring good revenue too. Advertising agencies responsible for the marketing of the products across the country roads, the petrol stations and sub-way restaurants and hotels would be an encouraging point of investment and growing business.

Chief Motor vehicles are buses, coaches, personal cars and Lories

Holding shares in Daewoo – a world-renowned group of companies Korea – which keeps striving for global uplift. Year after year Daewoo has become a name of responsibility and trust. It has already been laid down 6-lane Motorway between Lahore and Islamabad. Stretching over about 300 km is not only prelude at Daewoo but is also one of the many landmarks in the world of transportation & communication, which any country can feel proud of.

8: Foreign Investment Schemes:

Personally speaking, this tip is the most valuable and profitable for the international investors in developing countries. Businessmen from the foreign countries are encouraged to participate in the flourishing business. The example given is the Automobile industries. Collaboration with Honda, Toyota and Suzuki is currently bringing a lot fruitful chances into the financial aspects of the country. Investing capital by multinational companies can be optimized by employing flexible terms for the import and export of the home manufactured materials at relatively lower/flexible market prices.

-Capital investment in home-industries to medium scale

-Investment can be in the form of useable equipments, instruments for industrial, research or hospital purposes, for example proving good quality equipment at somehow flexible rates or leasing or financing schemes etc…

9: Education Sector: A good chance for foreigners to do Business:

The introduction of foreign languages can be a growing business in Pakistan. The reason is many folds: because it is the demand of coming time; easier communication with the developed countries; one can be a cosmopolitan; learns other cultures; opens optimistic ways of livings, etc… The key role in opening bilateral talks and conversations is to first learn the language of that part of the world.

Example is if we want good connections with Germany, a good possible way is to govern an institute for the basic international languages by foreign teachers. Founding a multilingual school specializing in German, English, French, Spanish and Chinese in some of the advanced cities, like Lahore, Islamabad, Karachi, Faisalabad, and some industrial cities like Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujarat, Rawalpindi would indeed be a good progressive setup not only in the business but also improving the educational background of the cities.

Do Energy Efficient Gas Water Heaters Deliver?

Smart consumers do all they can to use efficient products that help reduce the cost of the fuel they use. Our economy isn't in the best shape for individuals to be careless with their spending. Many consumers are considering upgrading to an energy efficient gas water heater system to reap such benefits. Before committing to such an investment there are some factors you need to take into consideration.

Statistics show that gas is a less expensive energy source than electricity. This is because electricity takes more energy to heat the water than gas does. It isn't as clean as gas either. If you plan to upgrade you should try to purchase a tankless water heater over the electric models available. While a gas model is more expensive to purchase because of the special parts inside of it, the savings over the long term will more than make up for it.

Energy efficient gas water heaters are very efficient. They are a much better option than the traditional tank gas water heaters that are still used in many homes today. When considering the cost of upgrading, remember the savings you will have coming your way because you won't be burning near as much gas as before. The government requires gas water heater systems to feature standard efficiency ratings.

Keep in mind that an energy efficient tankless gas water heater system is the most efficient water heater upgrade available on the market. There are many different brands and models out there to choose from so make sure you do your own research before you select a cost effective gas tankless water heater that allows your family to have all the hot water you need when you need it.

Culdees and Chaldeans

The letter 'h' did not exist in scripts or alphabets until relatively recently. The sound we associate with it was probably always there as an aspirant. The ending of Chaldean relates to 'yann' or 'the people of'. But did the Culdees and Chaldeans originate in NW Europe before the region of Mesopotamia? It is hard to know the answer to many questions like this because of the migrational movements of the elites including the Chaldean astronomer adepts. We can demonstrate that NW Europe had the same linguistic roots as the Altaic or Tarim region that provides us with red heads long before the Great Wall was built and carrying an important position of influence up until the time of the Khans who were from the esoteric tradition of 'smiths' or alchemists and also aligned with political forces such as the Nestorians.

My father told a young red head with freckles who was often made fun of as he grew up, that Genghis Khan and guys like Christopher Columbus and Thomas Jefferson were red heads. Yes, I have studied these people since I learned how to read before getting dumbed-down by school. So when we see current Christian sects named Culdees we might wonder if any of them know who they were in the time before the Keltic-Phoenician linguistic research cadres gave most languages or written words to people all over the earth. There are scholars who see the connection of the I Ching with Ogham. Ogham is certainly a very early script and knowledge system and my book Om to Ogham details this extensively.

Will "Bushanol" Help Global Warming?

"Bushanol" is not the answer to global warming. Ethanol has been around since the 1920's and it is no panacea in the fight to slow global warming. Most scientists agree that the energy to produce it is more than the energy it returns and there not significant reductions in greenhouse gasses when the entire production cycle is considered. While the Bush administration is at least looking at alternatives, they appear to be lacking in imagination. We need bold decision making which is a concept that is sorely lacking at The White House.

Ethanol does not get us away from the combustible, gas driven engine. It only plays into the hands of the oil companies and large auto manufacturers. If the public is led to believe that ethanol will help solve climate issues they will be less like to push for more stringent emission standards or to outright demand new technologies. Once again, the large profit making conglomerates have maintained their sway over national policy and divert the nation's attention away from the real issues at hand.

While new ethanol technologies may offer some hope as far as wining America from foreign oil, current methods of production only detract from the world's food supply. A short time ago the president announced that the U.S. was on the verge of major energy producing technologies. Was he referring to ethanol?

With all of the energy possibilities available, why is The White House shying away from the development of those technologies? Where is the push for solar, wind, small scale hydro and fuel cell technologies? Several years ago a company was working on small, solar based home electrolysis units that would allow the homeowner to produce his own hydrogen. This would then provide the hydrogen needed for the fuel cells that would power the home with electricity. A by-product of this process is heat for the home and the process is pollution free. Where are these devices now and why are they not receiving national policy priority? It brings to mind the scientist, Tesla who was reported to have developed ways to harness free electricity from the air. Supposedly, his designs were confiscated and were either destroyed or lie somewhere in the bowels of some federal building.

The Bush Administration is still approaching climate change as if it were some future phenomena that can be addressed in another twenty years. This is not true and this lack of action will adversely affect us all. While the public's awareness of this issue has grown and there is increased awareness of the need for alternative sources of energy, there is still a lack of any urgency regarding the matter. It is obvious that the direction being taken by the Bush Administration is one that is still controlled and guided by the oil corporations.

ISR Uranium Mining: A New Method Explained

ISR uranium mining is responsible for nearly all U.S. uranium mining (except for recovery through phosphates). More than 20 percent of global uranium mining now comes from the in situ recovery method, predominantly through In Situ Leach (ISL) mining in Kazakhstan and in Australia.

Because of the large number of ISR uranium projects on the horizon within the next ten years, both in the United States, Kazakhstan and Australia, the in situ (ISR) uranium mining method will provide U.S and global utilities with tens of millions of pounds of newly mined uranium by 2020.

We discussed the basics of ISR uranium mining with Bill Boberg, chief executive of UR-Energy, whose company plans to mine Wyoming's Lost Creek and Lost Soldier uranium deposits using the in situ recovery uranium mining method in 2008. We discussed many of the environmental type questions our readers wanted more information about.

StockInterview: How did the uranium actually get into the sandstones and become a roll front deposit?

Bill Boberg: Natural processes caused the uranium deposit to be in the aquifer in the first place. The uranium was deposited by the naturally flowing ground water when the natural oxygen in the ground water was exhausted due to natural chemical reactions with minerals and organic material contained in the sands of the aquifer itself. Uranium is still being carried by ground water flowing to the deposits. The flowing ground water is also naturally leaching parts of the deposit and re-depositing it a short distance away. This is really a very common natural process that's happening in many aquifers.

StockInterview: When you mine using the ISR method, do you destroy or contaminate an aquifer where you are mining?

Bill Boberg: There are probably thousands of uranium deposits throughout the world of varying quality in sandstones, which are also aquifers. Only a few hundred of these will contain sufficient uranium to eventually be mined. It's there, and if it is mined, most of the uranium that was in the aquifer will actually be removed from the aquifer instead of staying there. The in situ (ISR) mining process simply reverses the natural process that placed the uranium there in the first place. It's really a pretty simple process. The restoration process, after the mining is completed, actually returns the aquifer back to its pre-mining conditions. There is no way the aquifer is contaminated or destroyed (by ISR mining).

StockInterview: Many environmentalists claim that by removing the uranium, you are changing the aquifer. Is the aquifer much different than before mining took place?

Bill Boberg: It's probably not a lot different. The formation of uranium deposits in the sandstones is a result of oxygenated ground waters that came from the surface, carrying uranium which is deposited when the oxygen is depleted or finally exhausted. The deposit is in place in the sandstone. As fresh oxygen is brought down to that point, it will re-dissolve and move the uranium further along.

StockInterview: How do you know where in the deposit to inject the fresh oxygen?

Bill Boberg: On one side of the deposit is what we call altered or oxidized sands. On the down dip side of the deposit are the reduced sands. There is no oxygen in those sands. Any fluid that carries uranium into the reduced sands is going to use up the oxygen and immediately deposit the uranium by natural processes. The mining process adds additional oxygen to the water in the deposit itself to cause the uranium to go into solution. Then, it can be pumped up to the surface. The area of reduced sand that is downstream from the deposit is still there. It is the contact between the altered or oxidized sand and the reduced sand that causes the uranium to be precipitated into the sand itself. As the natural ground water flow carries the uranium into the reduced sands, natural processes will cause the uranium to precipitate out of the ground water, if there is some that did not get pumped to the surface and recovered during the mining operation.

StockInterview: How do you control the water flow during the ISR mining process?

Bill Boberg: The fluid flow is controlled by pumping the production well at a greater rate than the injection wells which are injecting the fluid. In other words, we create a flow to the production well because it is being pumped at a greater rate than the fluid being pumped into the surrounding injection wells. By doing this, we end up with a certain amount of 'bleed.' The majority of the ground water is returned to the aquifer on a regular basis. About one-half to one percent of the water used in the system is actually 'bled' out because we are pumping the production wells at a greater rate – between one-half to one percent greater rate than what we are injecting. That's how we control the flow from the injection wells into the production wells.

StockInterview: What is the solution you'll be using during the ISR process in Wyoming?

Bill Boberg: This will be an alkaline solution – basically just the addition of carbonate and oxygen to normal ground water. The carbonate could be in the form of simple bicarbonate of soda or the gaseous carbon dioxide itself. The solution being used has been described as not much different than Perrier® water. The solution is not something out of the realm of normal ground water, and would cause no one any problem. The combination of the carbon dioxide or bicarbonate of soda and oxygen in the ground water is really quite a benign solution. But, it changes the chemical character sufficiently that it causes the uranium to go into solution. It's really just reversing the process that caused uranium to be deposited in the first place. Uranium is precipitated in a 'reduced form.' The alkaline solution just reverses the deposit-forming process by using the water already in the deposit. Adding oxygen to it enables the uranium to go into solution, and then be brought up to the surface. There the uranium is stripped out on the polycarbonate resin in the ion exchange column.

StockInterview: But, other areas in the world, such as Kazakhstan, rely upon sulphuric acid in the in situ recovery uranium mining method.

Bill Boberg: Sulphuric acid will not be used as part of our in situ mining process. The sandstone deposits in Wyoming region are very suitable for alkaline-type in situ mining. The use of acid for in situ mining is considered suitable only under certain geologic conditions, particularly in areas of very poor water quality. Where we've got good water quality in the areas of Wyoming where we would be mining, alkaline is a far more suitable means of in situ mining. By using alkaline it is a lot easier to clean up and to restore the aquifer afterwards. Acids can react on many things besides uranium. They can dissolve pyrite, sulphides and other minerals in the sandstone. Acid can release a lot more undesirable things into the formation that can make it more difficult, in some cases, to recover the uranium, and make it more difficult to do a proper restoration job. The alkaline process is a lot cleaner process, and it's a lot easier to restore the aquifer.

StockInterview: Tell us about constructing an ISR well field for mining the uranium.

Bill Boberg: The wells are installed similar to most common water wells – with PVC piping. PVC casing would be cemented in place, and then piping similar to that used for irrigation would be used to transport the water to the injection wells. Similar piping would take the same water, coming out the production well, when moving it to the ion exchange column. When you come right down to it, this is basically a water plant. You are dealing with piping and water and oxygen and bicarbonate of soda. There's not much of anything that is going to cause anybody a problem.

StockInterview: There have been concerns about water use in certain parts of the United States. Will your company be consuming large amounts of water when mining at Lost Creek or Lost Soldier?

Bill Boberg: Consumption will be really low because in situ mining is basically a closed process. We use the ground water that is in the uranium deposit itself. We pump it out. We bring it to the surface. We charge it with the oxygen and bicarbonate of soda. Then we recirculate it back through the formation. Ninety-nine percent or more of the water stays in the formation. We only have to take out and dispose of one-half to one percent of the water that we are producing.

StockInterview: While ISR mining how does your company ensure that radiation does not escape beyond the aquifer and contaminate the ground water people or livestock drink?

Bill Boberg: The key is a very extensive monitoring program through a system of monitoring wells. These surround the well fields. Shallow monitor wells watch over any overlying drinking water aquifers. The monitor wells are very close to the well field. The mining process is done by pumping at such a rate so it brings the flow toward the production wells themselves. This assures the ground water flow is not moving the mining solution away from the production wells. From a mining company's viewpoint, it would be a huge waste if we could not control the fluids. We would have a huge expense in not being able to have the fluids go where we want them to. As a result, we carefully set up the process to make sure the fluids are moving the way we need them to go. The monitor wells assist us in knowing that we have control of the water flow. The monitor wells also assist the state government and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in assuring that we have our fluid flow under control.

StockInterview: What happens when the bells go off or the alarm sounds at the monitor wells?

Bill Boberg: If any of the wells give a suggestion of the potential of mining solutions getting into the vicinity of the monitor wells, we would immediately stop the injection of solutions, and use 'overpumping' to draw the solutions back into the mine area. Monitor wells are there to ensure we can see what's happening in the area. They are there to enable us to ensure our operations are being done properly. If a solution does happen to get into the monitor well, that's not really such a bad thing. It's telling us we need to make some corrections and move forward. Monitor wells help us develop better controls in the natural system we are dealing with.

StockInterview: How do you restore the water back to it pre-mining quality?

Bill Boberg: The aquifer is usually restored using the reverse osmosis process. It is a super-filtering process. We can also use other techniques, like reduction or bio-remediation. But, reverse osmosis is probably the one that would be more commonly used. More than 99 percent of the water used in the mining process is recirculated. It's put back in the aquifer after it is restored at the surface. It's just the new volumes of newly restored water that are pumped back through the mined area to assure that it's returned to pre-mine conditions. Only the small volumes of water, which are left with more concentration, may be either evaporated or distilled to create a solid waste for disposal. Or, they would be disposed of in a licensed disposal well.

StockInterview: Could you explain the deep disposal process?

Bill Boberg: Deep disposal is an activity which is strictly licensed and monitored by the states. It's not for just when the mining activity is completed, but probably something to be used throughout the mining activity. What this amounts to is this: the waste water is injected into a very deep rock unit. The disposal well is too deep and with such poor water quality that it could never be used for drinking water. These wells are commonly 6,000 or more feet in depth. The containment qualities of the deep disposal rock unit have to be able to contain the disposed water without a potential for leakage into other rock units. This is a common and well-accepted method for fluid disposal. It is strictly licensed and monitored. We are currently evaluating both our project areas, through the use of old oil and gas drill logs, in the area for rock units which could be favorable for the installation of deep disposal wells. As I said before, the deep disposal well is for a small percentage of the whole volume of water that will be handled.

StockInterview: How can the environmentalists be assured that the water will be restored to its pre-mining conditions?

Bill Boberg: Wyoming and Nebraska have a similar law, which requires 100-percent bonding for reclamation. The bonds are a result of a calculation, depending on various qualities of the deposit and how the mining will be conducted, which determines what it would cost the state to compete restoration if the company went bankrupt, or was not able to do any more work in restoring the mine. It is a complete 100-percent bonding that is determined in advance. It's probably in the range of tens of millions of dollars, which would be required for the bonding.

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